2021). (2017), Crawford et al. This could either suggest deep population structure with EAHG and southern huntergatherer groups tracing some of their ancestries to a basal central African RHG lineage (Lipson et al. Whereas the Mbuti and the Biaka have <6% wBSP-related ancestry, the Bezan and the Bongo trace as much as 38.5% and 47.5% to wBSPs, respectively (Patin et al. 2019). 2016; Lorente-Galdos et al. This is of biomedical relevance (see below), and it also enables improved fine-mapping of causal variants in genome-wide association studies (GWAS) because casual variants are tagged by fewer other variants (Auton et al. 2022), it is imperative that ongoing efforts to sequence diverse populations on the African continent need to be expanded. 2015). It has been hypothesized that the Arab expansion might also have introduced some sub-Saharanrelated ancestry through the slave trade (Newman 1995), which is supported by sub-Saharan ancestry in North African populations that could be traced to an admixture event 1.2 kya with a West African population (Henn et al. Attempts to illuminate the deep population structure in Africa have been further aided by the emergence of ancient DNA from unadmixed huntergatherer individuals (e.g., Skoglund et al. 2020). Note that these tests do not definitively establish admixture between specific populationsthe actual historical gene flow may have involved other related populations. 2019; Fortes-Lima et al. (2022) (see supplementary methods and table S1, Supplementary Material online). 2013; Choudhury et al. Nonetheless, African populations are connected via gene flow, which can serve as a potent source of adaptive variation. The lack of diversity in study cohorts also extends to genomic scientists. The study, which documented nearly 1 million genetic variants among more than 1,000 individuals, unveiled genetic differences as extensive as the variations between some Europeans and Asians, indicating populations that have been isolated for hundreds to thousands of years. 2012). In Africa, the Ethiopian Highlands are 1,500 meters above sea level, with summits as high as 4,550 meters above sea level. Each of these historical vignettes paints a recurring picture of population divergence followed by secondary contact. First, in northeastern Africa, admixture between a population related to contemporary Nilo-Saharan speakers (e.g., the Dinka or Nuer) and a population related to modern groups from northern Africa or the Levant created a group of early northeastern pastoralists. This group then migrated to eastern Africa and admixed with local foragers 4 kya, receiving 20% ancestry from a group related to a 4,500-year-old ancient individual from the Mota cave in Ethiopia that is genetically similar to the isolated, Afro-Asiaticspeaking Aari (Gallego Llorente et al. 2018). Ne determines the strength of genetic drift acting on a population. 2014, 2017). As a consequence of the transatlantic slave trade, >12.5 million people were forcefully displaced from Africa to the Americas between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, creating the largest present-day African diaspora (Eltis 2007). 2. In line with the OOA model, many human populations experienced a major decline in Ne coinciding with the OOA migration 7050 thousand years ago (kya) (Bergstrm et al. Interestingly, there is less differentiation between the African ancestries found in admixed genomes in the Americas (as quantified by FST statistics) compared with what is seen between each of the contributing ancestries in Africa (Gouveia et al. 2017; Vicente, Jakobsson, et al. as we all know, africans rule when it comes to genetics, it gets no better, either in bodybuilding or sports. This signal of Neanderthal admixture observed in African genomes is most likely not the result of direct admixture but rather the result of admixture with back-migrating Europeans. Furthermore, east African pastoralist contributions to Khoe-San groups are lower on X chromosomes than autosomes (Vicente et al. (2012), Mallick et al. The early-split hypothesis suggests that BSPs split at an early stage north of the rainforest, with one group then moving directly South through the rainforest, whereas the other migrated East, north of the rainforest, toward the Great African Lakes. Links to all data sources can be found in supplementary table S1, Supplementary Material online. (2019) found additional evidence for gene flow from the Ju|Hoan (northern) into the Hoan (central), from the |Gui/Xade San (central) into the Naro (central), and from an undefined Khoe-San population into the Nama (southern). Nevertheless, when accounting for recent admixture, studying the genetics of the traditional huntergatherer groups in Africa can provide a snapshot of deep population structure due to their long-term population continuity. 2017; DAtanasio et al. In contrast to seBSPs, swBSPs appear to have reached southern Africa more recently (750 ya), as indicated by more recent admixture of a western African-related source in the Khoisan-speaking Khwe and !Xun from Angola (Busby et al. 2012) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (Barbieri et al. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution. They differ in their amount of Neanderthal DNA as well The peoples of the Middle East: 'Peace panel' from the Sumerian city of Ur. Finally, we note that natural selection on immune-related genes has also extended across the African diaspora. 2022). 2012; Triska et al. Matjuda EN, Engwa GA, Anye SNC, Nkeh-Chungag BN, Goswami N. Pereira L, Mutesa L, Tindana P, Ramsay M. Schlebusch CM, Sjdin P, Skoglund P, Jakobsson M. Swart Y, Uren C, van Helden PD, Hoal EG, Mller M. Swart Y, van Eeden G, Sparks A, Uren C, Mller M. Tallman S, Sungo M das D, Saranga S, Beleza S. Vicente M, Jakobsson M, Ebbesen P, Schlebusch CM. The ability to break down starchy foods also appears to have been a target of selection. (2022), respectively. Excellent site you have here.. Its difficult to find excellent writing like yours these days. 2019; Gouveia et al. At K = 4, West and East African-like ancestry is distinguished. Some of these individuals are located closer to ancient and present-day central African RHG in principal component space (Lipson et al. 4C). 2017; Hey et al. 2010; Republic of South Africa 2021). Genetic studies of uniparental and autosomal markers initially suggested that BSPs are largely genetically homogenous groups of people (i.e., FST 0.02) (Coelho et al. Generally, it is assumed that they have either merged into or were replaced by neighboring agropastoral groups, obscuring some of the ancestral genetic variation and structure (Pagani et al. 2016). Cladistic analysis of Bantu languages: a new tree based on combined lexical and grammatical data, A new paradigm: the African early iron age without Bantu migrations, Ancestry and disease in the age of genomic medicine, An ancestral recombination graph of human, neanderthal, and Denisovan genomes, Genetic adaptation to high altitude in the Ethiopian highlands, Genomic evidence for shared common ancestry of East African huntinggathering populations and insights into local adaptation, Genomic variation in seven Khoe-San groups reveals adaptation and complex African history, Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago, Khoe-San genomes reveal unique variation and confirm the deepest population divergence in homo sapiens, Tales of human migration, admixture, and selection in Africa, Stronger signal of recent selection for lactase persistence in Maasai than in Europeans, On the evolution of lactase persistence in humans, Along the Indian ocean coast: genomic variation in Mozambique provides new insights into the Bantu expansion, Genetic substructure and complex demographic history of South African Bantu speakers, Heterogeneity in Palaeolithic population continuity and Neolithic expansion in North Africa, Whole-genome-sequence-based haplotypes reveal single origin of the sickle allele during the Holocene wet phase, The missing diversity in human genetic studies, Taste perception and lifestyle: insights from phenotype and genome data among Africans and Asians, Reconstructing prehistoric African population structure, Whole Y-chromosome sequences reveal an extremely recent origin of the most common North African paternal lineage E-M183 (M81), Localization of adaptive variants in human genomes using averaged one-dependence estimation, Local ancestry adjusted allelic association analysis robustly captures tuberculosis susceptibility loci, Prospective avenues for human population genomics and disease mapping in Southern Africa, Whole-genome sequencing of Bantu-speakers from Angola and Mozambique reveals complex dispersal patterns and interactions throughout sub-Saharan Africa, The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans, Extensive admixture and selective pressure across the Sahel belt, Fine-scale human population structure in Southern Africa reflects ecogeographic boundaries, Ancestral mitochondrial N lineage from the Neolithic green Sahara, Pleistocene North African genomes link Near Eastern and sub-Saharan African human populations, Sociocultural behavior, sex-biased admixture, and effective population sizes in Central African pygmies and non-pygmies, Male-biased migration from East Africa introduced pastoralism into Southern Africa, Genetic affinities among Southern Africa hunter, gatherers and the impact of admixing farmer and herder populations, Population history and genetic adaptation of the Fulani nomads: inferences from genome-wide data and the lactase persistence trait, Identification of African-specific admixture between modern and archaic humans, Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa, 4000-Year-old hair from the Middle Nile highlights unusual ancient DNA degradation pattern and a potential source of early Eastern Africa pastoralists, Tracking human population structure through time from whole genome sequences, An integrated personal and population-based Egyptian genome reference, Archaic hominin introgression in Africa contributes to functional salivary MUC7 genetic variation, Strong selection at MHC in Mexicans since admixture. 2020). These estimates are in slight disagreement with the estimates of Skoglund et al. 2014). However, this may also be the result of a strong population bottleneck (Fortes-Lima et al. I truly appreciate people like you! Subsequent studies of genome-wide data that included more Imazighen populations confirmed that most Arab and Imazighen populations are weakly genetically differentiated (Arauna et al. Similarly, EAHG groups, for example, the click-speaking Hadza and Sandawe in Tanzania and the Chabu in Ethiopia, are traditional foragers, who have practiced a huntergatherer lifestyle until recently or are still practicing it (Bower 1991; Prendergast 2020). 2016; Ongaro et al. Overall, these results suggest that eastern African pastoralists reached southern Africa prior to and independently of Bantu-speaking groups. - Bodybuilding.com Forums Shop Protein Protein Whey Protein Whey Protein Isolate Weight Gainers Casein Protein Egg Protein (2012), Mallick et al. For a comprehensive review of Sahelian populations demographic history, including Niger-Congospeaking populations, we refer to ern et al. 2019). Given the scope of this review paper, we cannot comprehensively review the evolutionary history of every population. Given the high genetic affinity of a pastoralist individual who lived 4000 years ago in northern Sudan with ancient individuals from Kenya and Tanzania, it has been argued that this initial dispersal of northeastern pastoralists into East Africa occurred rapidly (Wang et al. Subsets of African genetic variation found outside of Africa also vary by region, indicating that multiple OOA migrations may have occurred (Rasmussen et al. WebDiscover short videos related to eastafricanbody on TikTok. Because of this, the biomedical field benefits from an in-depth understanding of genomic variation in diverse populations (Rotimi and Jorde 2010). (2017), Scheinfeldt et al. Levantines and Arabians Have Different Origins, Middle East Genomic Study Finds The Arabians have deeper roots in Africa, while the Levantines roots lie in Europe and Anatolia in todays Turkey. However, it is also possible that this allele has not been detected in ancient samples due to a limited number of surveyed individuals. 2018). Additionally, putatively selected regions also included genes unrelated to height, such as genes associated with reproduction, thyroid function, and immune traits, among others (Jarvis et al. 2014; Scheinfeldt et al. Search for other works by this author on: The genetic architecture of adaptations to high altitude in Ethiopia, Berbers and Arabs: tracing the genetic diversity and history of Southern Tunisia through genome wide analysis, Evidence from Y-chromosome analysis for a late exclusively eastern expansion of the Bantu-speaking people, Recent historical migrations have shaped the gene pool of Arabs and Berbers in North Africa, A global reference for human genetic variation, Genetic structure and sex-biased gene flow in the history of southern African populations, Unraveling the complex maternal history of Southern African Khoisan populations, Leveraging genetic ancestry to study health disparities, Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes, Effect of NQO1 and CYP4F2 genotypes on warfarin dose requirements in HispanicAmericans and AfricanAmericans, Lactase persistence alleles reveal partial East African ancestry of southern African Khoe pastoralists, Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans, Admixture into and within sub-Saharan Africa Pickrell, JK, editor, Human adaptation, demography and cattle domestication: an overview of the complexity of lactase persistence in Africa, Human genomic diversity in Europe: a summary of human genomic diversity in Europe: a summary of recent research and prospects for the future, Demographic history and admixture dynamics in African Sahelian populations, A different view on fine-scale population structure in Western African populations, Identifying and interpreting apparent neanderthal ancestry in African individuals, Determining ancestry proportions in complex admixture scenarios in South Africa using a novel proxy ancestry selection method, Genome-wide association study of ancestry-specific TB risk in the South African Coloured population, Whole-genome sequencing for an enhanced understanding of genetic variation among South Africans, High-depth African genomes inform human migration and health, Bantu-speaker migration and admixture in Southern Africa, Genetic structure of the western and Eastern African Sahel/Savannah belt and the role of nomadic pastoralists as inferred from the variation of D-loop mitochondrial DNA sequences, On the edge of Bantu expansions: mtDNA, Y chromosome and lactase persistence genetic variation in southwestern Angola, Loci associated with skin pigmentation identified in African populations, Genetic variants in CYP (-1A2, -2C9, -2C19, -3A4 and -3A5), VKORC1 and ABCB1 genes in a black South African population: a window into diversity, The peopling of the last Green Sahara revealed by high-coverage resequencing of trans-Saharan patrilineages, A panel of ancestry informative markers for the complex five-way admixed South African Coloured population, Using multi-way admixture mapping to elucidate TB susceptibility in the South African Coloured population, Genome-wide analysis of the structure of the South African Coloured population in the Western Cape, Circum-Saharan prehistory through the lens of mtDNA diversity, Farmers and their languages: the first expansions, Recovering signals of ghost archaic introgression in African populations. (2023) were common in their African data set (i.e., frequency >0.05) but rare outside of Africa (i.e., frequency <0.01). This is one advantage because they have more options of what to eat. 2016). 2012); BHLHE41, a gene that is involved in hypoxia response and circadian rhythm (Huerta-Snchez et al. 2012). 2020). 2015; Mallick et al. However, the possibility of archaic ghost admixture is also supported by fossil records from across Africa, indicating that modern humans spatially and temporally overlapped with hominins exhibiting archaic features (Harvati et al. The first evidence for archaic ghost introgression in Africa was obtained by applying S*an approach that searches for highly divergent haplotypesto African populations (Plagnol and Wall 2006). Out-of-Africa (OOA) model Hypothesis that anatomically modern humans evolved in Africa and subsequently peopled the rest of the world. For a more granular review of the demographic histories in light of the transatlantic slave trade of admixed population in the Americas, see Fortes-Lima and Verdu (2021). (2017), Crawford et al. 2012; Hsieh, Veeramah, et al. These are some genes I saw on here that carry an advantage in bodybuilding and my genotypes . 2007). IntrogressionThe interbreeding of individuals from two or more populations that were isolated for a long evolutionary time but are not yet reproductively isolated. In this 2019; Fortes-Lima et al. Spatial visualizations of admixture and migration in Africa. 2018; Lorente-Galdos et al. Gene flowThe movement of individuals and their genetic material from one population to another population. Chen L, Wolf AB, Fu W, Li L, Akey JM. 2020a). (2022) recently found that a structured model with two stems, that is, two weakly differentiated Homo populations connected by gene flow over evolutionary time, can also explain the observed signals of archaic ghost introgression in Africa. Interestingly, the Hadza of Tanzania who have a diet rich in tubers tend to have higher copy numbers of amylase genes than populations with low-starch diets (Perry et al. 2020). In sub-Saharan Africa, strong selection for malaria resistance has contributed to the near fixation of the Duffy blood group, elevated rates of G6PD deficiency, and sickle cell disease (Kariuki and Williams 2020). For these reasons, Africa is commonly accepted as the cradle of humankind (Henn et al. Hunting and gathering was the predominant subsistence strategy prior to the introduction of agriculture and pastoralism during the Neolithic (i.e., 126.5 kya in Africa) (Marshall and Hildebrand 2002). Another example of adaptation to extreme conditions are RHG groups, who evolved a short stature (mean adult height <160cm). However, studies of uniparental markers revealed 1) genetic heterogeneity among North African populations with a west-to-east cline of mtDNA and Y chromosomal haplogroup frequencies, 2) a lack of differentiation between Arabs and Imazighen (Berbers), 3) preliminary evidence for extensive admixture of populations with European-related, Middle Easternrelated, and sub-Saharan Africanrelated ancestry, and 4) an autochthonous North African component (Haak et al. In contrast to eastern Arabic-speaking populations, western Fulani groups are the closest to western Africans but also show significant fractions of European-related and East Africanrelated ancestry (Henn et al. Lastly, it is also imperative that the same ethical rigor applied to studying living participants needs to be extended to ancient DNA (Gibbon 2020). 2020a; Lipson et al. 2017). Fine-mappingThe processes of refining the location of trait-associated variants in the genomic region of interest to identify likely causal variants based on association statistics and linkage disequilibrium patterns. East African genetics at work. For example, the Amahara people have adapted to low barometric pressure and hypoxia in the Ethiopian Highlands over the past 5,000 years. 2017). Depending on subsistence strategy, different distributions of uniparental markers have been observed in the Sahel. 2022). 2018; Sirugo et al. HoloceneThe current geological epoch that started after the Last Glacial Maximum 12 kya. 2019; Bergstrm et al. Thus, this study indicates that admixture of Khoe-San groups with eastern African pastoralists occurred at least 1.2 kya (fig. 3. 2017; Vicente, Jakobsson, et al. 2017; Serra-Vidal et al. 2020). Additionally, the Naro (central) showed evidence of admixture with the Ju|Hoan (northern) and another population characterized by the Central Khoe-San component (e.g., Taa or |Gui). 2016). then you got the germans and eastern europeans who also generally have very good genetics for muscle size. 4A). 2011; Barbieri et al. Many scientists have also proved this result. They need to maintain their body temperature by keeping warm. In this review, we view population genetics through the lens of admixture, highlighting how multiple demographic events have shaped African genomes. Its bad genetics, my hormones do now allow me. Studies of genome-wide data largely confirmed the North African population structure inferred from uniparental markers while emphasizing fine-scale population structure (Henn et al. estimated that Khoe-San derive 3.8% (95% CI: 1.74.8%), Mbuti 3.9% (95% CI: 1.34.9%), and western African populations 5.8% (95% CI: 0.79.7%) of their ancestry from an archaic ghost lineage. 2020). 2017; Lopez et al. 2022). 2017; Serra-Vidal et al. Regulatory DNA appears to be a frequent target of adaptation in African genomes (Quiver and Lachance 2022). An additional eastsouthwest cline was recently identified by the incorporation of six novel genomes of ancient huntergatherers from eastern and southcentral Africa. Limited sex-biased gene flow between the Fulani (and/or other sub-Saharan populations) and Arab nomadic pastoralists has been suggested, as more mtDNA than Y chromosomal haplogroup sharing was observed between the two groups, with most shared haplogroups being of sub-Saharan origin (kov et al. 2017; Vicente, Jakobsson, et al. Nowadays, this region is inhabited by populations practicing one of two main subsistence strategies, tracing their origin to the Early Holocene (10 kya) (Pereira et al. Ive a undertaking that Im just now working on, and Ive been at the look out for such info. Such studies have produced large amounts of insightful data which have revealed medically relevant genetic loci and aided the interpretation of the pathogenicity of genetic variants, advancing precision medicine for all populations (Choudhury et al. 2013). Population bottleneckAn event that drastically reduces the effective size of a population, leading to increased genetic drift. 2010; Patin et al. Genetic counselors are certified professionals who help patients understand the results of genetic testing. Watch popular content from the following creators: zach.cali18(@zach.cali18), S A L I M(@sallfitt), NICK(@nick.zelko), rose(@3r0sy), Arya Ziaee(@notthatarya), KhaledLifts(@khaledlifts), Ihsan Ghareeb(@sean97antwan), AliHach_21(@alihach_21), Abed(@abedbrah), This code appears to be responsible for allowing East Africans to increase their muscle mass. Statistical release (P0302): mid-year population estimates 2021. 1. San Francisco Bay Area. Note that subsequent gene flow can confound these estimates. Such studies may not only hold new insights about human origins but are also crucial for equitable biomedical research, with implications that possibly extend beyond Africa. Using ArchIE, they identified a set of possibly adaptively introgressed genes that are at high frequencies in West Africans (99.9th percentile of putatively introgressed allele frequencies): NF1, MTFR2, HSD17B2, KCN1P4, and TRPS1 (Durvasula and Sankararaman 2020). However, the magnitude of the sex bias is difficult to pinpoint from X chromosomal and autosomal ancestry proportions due to potential confounding from complex demographic histories, among others (Pfennig and Lachance 2023). Brown shading indicates lower effective migration rates, and blue shading indicates higher migration effective migration rates, with edge weights quantified by log10(w). 2017; Priehodov et al. For instance, Ragsdale et al. Understanding how this population-specific genetic variation influences complex traits is particularly important in the context of polygenic scores. ACTN3 is the stronger geans code in muscle building and this is scientifically proven. 2017; Scheinfeldt et al. (2019), and Fortes-Lima et al. In contrast to the admixture in South Africa, seBSPs appeared to have replaced resident huntergatherer populations in Malawi and Mozambique with present-day individuals deriving 97% of their ancestry from the Bantu expansion (Skoglund et al. 5. 2015; Busby et al. 2022). 2022) as well as mtDNA and Y haplogroups (kov et al. 2019). 2010). 2012; Li et al. 2017 and Lipson et al. Hollfelder N, Breton G, Sjdin P, Jakobsson M. Karlsson EK, Kwiatkowski DP, Sabeti PC. found that the East African LP allele is largely absent from ancient pastoralist individuals from Kenya and Tanzania, indicating that east African pastoralists were lactose intolerant as recently as 31 kya (Prendergast et al. 2022). 2020). 2012). Compared with the rest of the world, each African genome harbors 25% more polymorphisms than each non-African genome (Auton et al. The Western Cape, at the southernmost part of South Africa, harbors one of the most diverse admixed populations, namely, the South African Coloured (SAC) population, which is the largest ethnic group in this region and has its origins slightly >350 ya (de Wit et al. At K = 2, African-like and European-like ancestry cluster separately, and at K = 3, a Khoe-San component appears. 2020). In addition, African populations harbor the greatest genetic diversity, exhibit the lowest levels of linkage disequilibrium (LD), have the largest long-term effective population sizes (Ne), and show the deepest split times of all human lineages (Tishkoff et al. Its common knowledge now that certain groups of people who respond better to certain exercises or are genetically predisposed to having a higher aptitude for sports might be related to how our fitness genes evolve through generations. 2016; Arauna et al. 2012; Arauna et al. (Epidermal Abundance) They have a thick outer layer of skin on their overall body. Now that we know more about DNA, genes, and health, it is clear that some people are born with a boost in the muscle department. 2 and 3), is available at GitHub: https://github.com/LachanceLab/AfricanPopulationStructure. Supplementary methods are available online at Genome Biology and Evolution online. Khoe-San collectively refers to Khoisan-speaking San huntergatherers and Khoekhoe herders, who historically inhabit arid regions in southern Africa. Initial studies leveraging autosomal genotyping data (Pickrell et al. Additionally, Sengupta et al. Training more diverse scientists and building research capacities on the African continent not only leads to better research but may also help to address the lack of diversity in study cohorts (Hindorff et al. 2015; Vicente, Priehodov, et al. 2017; Skoglund et al. Importantly, African genomes are heterogeneous: They contain mixtures of multiple ancestries, each of which have experienced different evolutionary histories. Population structureSystematic differences in allele frequencies between subpopulations.
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